← Model comparison

What changed between v1 and v2

Ada's brief was rewritten and her test set grew. Both are versioned and hashed, so the two runs can be compared question by question rather than headline to headline — which matters, because most of the movement in the headline is not the models getting better.

Version comparisons: v1 → v2 (this page) · v2 → v3

This is the earlier comparison, kept as published. The brief has moved on since; v2 → v3 is the current one.

172
Same question
154
Directly comparable
18
Answer moved
15
New questions
175 → 189
Set size

What actually changed

Three things moved at once, which is why a single before-and-after number would be meaningless.

The brief

Ada's instructions were rewritten to match how Tromp IT now describes itself. The experience section was reworked, how engagements are delivered is stated plainly rather than left to be discovered, and a privacy and data-handling section was added from scratch. Ada also stopped asking every visitor for their name before answering anything. Each version of the brief is fingerprinted, and the two fingerprints are recorded at the foot of the page.

The test set

175 questions became 189: 1 retired because its subject left the brief, 2 rewritten because the underlying fact changed, and 15 added — including a new Privacy & Data Handling category, so the claims the site now makes about data have questions behind them.

The instrument did not change

Same four judges, same thresholds, same generation settings, same deterministic tool assertions. That is deliberate: if the measuring apparatus moved too, nothing below could be attributed.

Which leaves the comparison that is actually defensible. Of the 172 questions whose text is unchanged, 18 have a different correct answer in v2, because the brief moved underneath them — asking how big the team is, when a person has been removed from it. Scoring worse on one of those is not a regression. They are held out, leaving 154 questions where the question and the right answer are both identical. Everything in the chart below is measured on those.

What the models did

Each line is one model, from its v1 score to its v2 score on the 154 directly comparable questions. Hover any line or endpoint for the model and both of its figures.

v1v2GPT-5.5 · v1 121 → v2 143 (+22) of 154 · three-of-four +7GPT-5.5 · v1 121 → v2 143 (+22) of 154 · three-of-four +7GPT-5.5 · v1 121 → v2 143 (+22) of 154 · three-of-four +7GPT-5.5 121143 +22Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Ada today) · v1 122 → v2 135 (+13) of 154 · three-of-four +1Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Ada today) · v1 122 → v2 135 (+13) of 154 · three-of-four +1Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Ada today) · v1 122 → v2 135 (+13) of 154 · three-of-four +1Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Ada today) 122135 +13Claude Sonnet 5 · v1 123 → v2 134 (+11) of 154 · three-of-four -1Claude Sonnet 5 · v1 123 → v2 134 (+11) of 154 · three-of-four -1Claude Sonnet 5 · v1 123 → v2 134 (+11) of 154 · three-of-four -1Claude Sonnet 5 123134 +11Claude Opus 5 · v1 135 → v2 131 (-4) of 154 · three-of-four +3Claude Opus 5 · v1 135 → v2 131 (-4) of 154 · three-of-four +3Claude Opus 5 · v1 135 → v2 131 (-4) of 154 · three-of-four +3Claude Opus 5 135131 -4Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite · v1 91 → v2 97 (+6) of 154 · three-of-four +1Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite · v1 91 → v2 97 (+6) of 154 · three-of-four +1Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite · v1 91 → v2 97 (+6) of 154 · three-of-four +1Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite 9197 +6Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) · v1 84 → v2 88 (+4) of 154 · three-of-four +6Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) · v1 84 → v2 88 (+4) of 154 · three-of-four +6Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) · v1 84 → v2 88 (+4) of 154 · three-of-four +6Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) 8488 +4Gemini 3.5 Flash · v1 76 → v2 76 (+0) of 154 · three-of-four +11Gemini 3.5 Flash · v1 76 → v2 76 (+0) of 154 · three-of-four +11Gemini 3.5 Flash · v1 76 → v2 76 (+0) of 154 · three-of-four +11Gemini 3.5 Flash 7676 +0Qwen 3 235B · v1 67 → v2 75 (+8) of 154 · three-of-four -1Qwen 3 235B · v1 67 → v2 75 (+8) of 154 · three-of-four -1Qwen 3 235B · v1 67 → v2 75 (+8) of 154 · three-of-four -1Qwen 3 235B 6775 +8Questions passed, of the 154 whose text and correct answer are unchanged

6 of the 8 models improved, 1 went backwards. GPT-5.5 gained 22 questions. The model Ada actually runs, Claude Sonnet 4.6, gained 13.

But the pass rule is doing most of the work

A question passes only when all four judges award full marks. One dissenter fails it. That makes the headline unusually sensitive to how agreeable the panel happened to be — so here is the same movement scored a second way, passing a question when three of four judges agree.

no changeGPT-5.5+22+7Claude Sonnet 4.6+13+1Claude Sonnet 5+11-1Claude Opus 5-4+3Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite+6+1Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on)+4+6Gemini 3.5 Flash+0+11Qwen 3 235B+8-1
unanimous — the published rule three of four
The gains shrink to almost nothing. Under unanimity the deployed model gains 13; under a three-of-four rule it gains 1. The rewritten brief did make Ada easier to score against — but most of the apparent improvement is the panel agreeing more often, not the models answering better. Both numbers are published because quoting only the first would overstate the gain for most of the field, and invent a regression for one of them.
Model v1 confirmed
of 175
v2 confirmed
of 189
v1 stablev2 stable Change3-of-4
GPT-5.5136172121143+22+7
Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Ada today)143166122135+13+1
Claude Sonnet 5140163123134+11-1
Claude Opus 5154161135131-4+3
Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite1081209197+6+1
Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on)1041128488+4+6
Gemini 3.5 Flash90987676+0+11
Qwen 3 235B79906775+8-1

The two confirmed columns are over different denominators and are shown for orientation, not comparison. The stable columns are the like-for-like pair.

Score variance by category

A headline score averages over eight quite different kinds of question. Splitting it by version shows which categories actually separate the models, which moved between v1 and v2, and which are buying nothing. Each dot is one model; the two rows are the two versions, measured on the questions common to both.

0%20%40%60%80%100%How We Work21 of 25q comparableClaude Opus 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 95%Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 86%Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic), GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v1 · 81%Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v1 · 71%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v1 · 57%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google) · v1 · 33%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v1 · 29%v1GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v2 · 100%Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v2 · 95%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic) · v2 · 90%Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v2 · 57%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google), Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v2 · 38%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v2 · 33%v2Services28 of 30q comparableClaude Opus 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 96%Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 89%Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic) · v1 · 86%GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v1 · 68%Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v1 · 50%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google), Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v1 · 46%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v1 · 43%v1Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v2 · 96%GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v2 · 93%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic) · v2 · 89%Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v2 · 61%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v2 · 50%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v2 · 36%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google) · v2 · 29%v2Edge Cases20 of 23q comparableClaude Opus 5 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 95%GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v1 · 75%Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v1 · 70%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google), Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v1 · 45%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v1 · 40%v1Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v2 · 100%GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v2 · 95%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic) · v2 · 90%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google), Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v2 · 60%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google), Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v2 · 50%v2Fit30 of 30q comparableClaude Opus 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 87%Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic), GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v1 · 80%Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 73%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google), Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v1 · 47%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v1 · 40%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v1 · 30%v1GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v2 · 90%Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic) · v2 · 87%Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v2 · 80%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic) · v2 · 73%Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v2 · 53%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v2 · 50%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google) · v2 · 43%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v2 · 30%v2Privacynew in v2 · 8q—Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v2 · 88%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic), GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v2 · 75%Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v2 · 62%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v2 · 50%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v2 · 38%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google) · v2 · 25%v2Experience11 of 28q comparableClaude Opus 5 (Anthropic), GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v1 · 82%Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic) · v1 · 64%Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 55%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google), Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v1 · 36%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google), Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v1 · 18%v1GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v2 · 91%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic) · v2 · 82%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v2 · 64%Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic), Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v2 · 45%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google) · v2 · 18%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v2 · 9%v2Tool Usage25 of 25q comparableGPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v1 · 88%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google), Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v1 · 64%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic), Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v1 · 60%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google) · v1 · 56%Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic) · v1 · 52%v1GPT-5.5 (OpenAI) · v2 · 96%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v2 · 84%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic) · v2 · 80%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google) · v2 · 76%Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic), Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v2 · 68%Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v2 · 60%v2Out of Scope19 of 20q comparableClaude Opus 5 (Anthropic) · v1 · 100%Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic), Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google) · v1 · 95%Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google) · v1 · 89%GPT-5.5 (OpenAI), Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v1 · 79%Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v1 · 74%v1Claude Sonnet 4.6 (Anthropic) · v2 · 100%Claude Opus 5 (Anthropic), Claude Sonnet 5 (Anthropic), Gemini 3.5 Flash (thinking on) (Google), Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite (Google) · v2 · 95%GPT-5.5 (OpenAI), Gemini 3.5 Flash (Google), Qwen 3 235B (Alibaba) · v2 · 84%v2Share of that category's questions passed — one dot per model, hover for its name
Anthropic OpenAI Google Alibaba
hollow = v1 solid = v2   — the dot with a dark ring is the model Ada runs, and every dot names itself on hover. Where models scored the same they share one slightly larger dot, which lists all of them; if they are from different vendors it turns neutral. Hue is the vendor rather than the individual model: in a chart where two marks can sit side by side the palette must separate every pair, and eight hues cannot. Four families can, and they cluster usefully.
Out of Scope separates nothing. Every model scores between 85% and 100% on its 20 questions, a spread of 6 points against 25 for How We Work. Refusing to answer a question about the weather is apparently not hard. Those questions still cost a judge call each, every run, on every model — roughly 11% of the test budget to confirm something no longer in doubt. The categories with wide bars are where the evidence is.

Where the rewrite actually landed

The same movement per category, measured only on the comparable questions, under both pass rules — because a gain that evaporates when one dissenting judge is forgiven was never a gain in behaviour.

no changeTool Usage+14pp+10ppExperience+6pp-1ppEdge Cases+6pp+2ppOut of Scope+3pp-1ppFit+3pp+3ppServices+2pp+2ppHow We Work+1pp-4pp
unanimous three of four
One category holds up, and it is not one we edited. Tool Usage gains +14 points under unanimity and still +10 under three-of-four — every other category falls to within a few points of zero or turns negative. The mechanism is visible in the replies: the habit v1 blamed for tool scores, Ada finishing the job and then predicting what Phil will do, dropped in five of the eight models, most sharply in the deployed one. Nothing in the rewrite addressed tool behaviour directly; telling Ada to answer the question before asking who is asking appears to have made her less inclined to narrate what happens next.

The same charts, both versions

These are the model comparison's own charts, drawn once per version and put next to each other. Same models, same judges, same settings — only the brief and the question set differ.

Cost against quality

Each model is a whisker rather than a dot: the bar runs from confirmed up to ceiling, with likely marked on it, against running cost on a log scale. A dot would assert a precision the panel does not have, and the overlap between the leading models is the thing worth seeing. The vertical axis is the share of each version's question set, so the two panes are directly comparable even though one is out of 175 and the other out of 189. Watch the top of the field: the whisker furthest up the page changes hands, and the leaders' whiskers overlap in both versions.

v1 · 175 questions
40%50%60%70%80%90%100% $5$10$20$50$100Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite — 108 confirmed, 145 likely, 160 ceiling of 175; $6 per 1,000 conversations, 1474ms avgGemini 3.5 Flash-LiteQwen 3 235B — 79 confirmed, 124 likely, 145 ceiling of 175; $9 per 1,000 conversations, 1735ms avgQwen 3 235BGemini 3.5 Flash — 90 confirmed, 122 likely, 153 ceiling of 175; $28 per 1,000 conversations, 2096ms avgGemini 3.5 FlashClaude Sonnet 5 — 140 confirmed, 166 likely, 168 ceiling of 175; $64 per 1,000 conversations, 3417ms avgClaude Sonnet 5Claude Sonnet 4.6 — 143 confirmed, 168 likely, 175 ceiling of 175; $74 per 1,000 conversations, 5328ms avgClaude Sonnet 4.6 (Ada today)GPT-5.5 — 136 confirmed, 161 likely, 168 ceiling of 175; $117 per 1,000 conversations, 3037ms avgGPT-5.5Claude Opus 5 — 154 confirmed, 167 likely, 171 ceiling of 175; $147 per 1,000 conversations, 4337ms avgClaude Opus 5 Estimated cost per 1,000 conversations (log scale) Score (confirmed – likely – ceiling)
v2 · 189 questions
50%60%70%80%90%100% $5$10$20$50$100$200Gemini 3.5 Flash-Lite — 120 confirmed, 158 likely, 173 ceiling of 189; $6 per 1,000 conversations, 1541ms avgGemini 3.5 Flash-LiteQwen 3 235B — 90 confirmed, 138 likely, 170 ceiling of 189; $9 per 1,000 conversations, 2884ms avgQwen 3 235BGemini 3.5 Flash — 98 confirmed, 150 likely, 172 ceiling of 189; $31 per 1,000 conversations, 2078ms avgGemini 3.5 FlashClaude Sonnet 5 — 163 confirmed, 179 likely, 187 ceiling of 189; $67 per 1,000 conversations, 3794ms avgClaude Sonnet 5Claude Sonnet 4.6 — 166 confirmed, 184 likely, 188 ceiling of 189; $74 per 1,000 conversations, 5364ms avgClaude Sonnet 4.6 (Ada today)GPT-5.5 — 172 confirmed, 181 likely, 187 ceiling of 189; $123 per 1,000 conversations, 3445ms avgGPT-5.5Claude Opus 5 — 161 confirmed, 182 likely, 184 ceiling of 189; $154 per 1,000 conversations, 4642ms avgClaude Opus 5 Estimated cost per 1,000 conversations (log scale) Score (confirmed – likely – ceiling)

Further right is more expensive; higher is better. Each bar spans confirmed (lower cap) to ceiling (upper cap), with likely as the dot — so its height is how much the panel left unsettled for that model. Where bars overlap, the models are not separated by this evidence. Best value sits toward the top-left.

Variance in the judging panel

The panel is meant to be the fixed part of the instrument — the same four judges, the same prompts, the same thresholds in both runs. It is worth checking, because if the judges moved then everything above is measuring the wrong thing. Both charts use only the comparable questions, so neither is a question-mix effect.

Full marks awarded
0%20%40%60%80%100%Gemini 2.5 Flash94%95%GPT-5-mini91%91%DeepSeek v3.286%90%Claude Haiku 4.574%77%
Share of lone objections
0%20%40%60%80%100%Claude Haiku 4.565%71%GPT-5-mini18%18%DeepSeek v3.215%10%Gemini 2.5 Flash2%1%

v1 v2

For v1 against v2, the answer is that the panel barely moved. The gap between the strictest and most generous judge was 19.6 points in v1 and 18.3 in v2, and no single judge changed its generosity by more than 3.6 points. That is the result this section was checking for: the measuring apparatus held still between the two runs, so the differences everywhere above can be attributed to the brief and the question set rather than to the judges.
But "barely" is not "not at all", and the pass rule amplifies what little there was. Three of the four judges awarded full marks slightly more often in v2, and the share of questions drawing any disagreement fell from 33.0% to 28.8%. Under unanimity a question does not need a better answer to flip — it needs a fourth vote. A panel that agrees a little more often therefore produces a visibly higher score from the same behaviour, which is why a three-of-four figure is published beside every unanimous one on this page.
Separately, and regardless of version: the panel is not uniform, and one judge decides. On identical answers Claude Haiku 4.5 awards full marks 77% of the time and Gemini 2.5 Flash 95% — 18 points apart inside one panel. Because a question passes only when all four agree, a lone objection is a failure, and Claude Haiku 4.5 is that lone objector in 71% of the 228 questions one judge failed, against 1% for Gemini 2.5 Flash. On anything the panel is split about, the published verdict is largely Claude Haiku 4.5's reading with three corroborating votes. For proportion: the models are further apart than the judges, spanning 44 points on the same questions, so the instrument is noisy and still discriminates.

Being honest about the limit: judges score answers, so marks rising could mean the answers improved rather than the judges softening, and these numbers cannot fully separate the two. What argues for the panel is the shape of the movement. A genuinely better answer should gain under both rules; almost all of the gain here appears under unanimity alone, which is the signature of votes consolidating rather than answers improving. Tool Usage is the exception, and the one place a behavioural change is visible in the replies themselves.

The drifts worth knowing about

Versioning the brief and the question set made these visible. Without it each one would have been invisible, or worse, would have looked like something else.

Ranking

The recommendation reversed, then reversed back

v1 put Claude Opus 5 in front and had the deployed model, Sonnet 4.6, trailing Sonnet 5 — the conclusion was probably switch, after one check. In v2 GPT-5.5 leads, Sonnet 4.6 is the strongest Claude model tested, and Opus 5 is the only model in the field that went backwards on the comparable questions. Nothing about the models changed between the two runs. The brief did.

Regression

A single sentence in the brief cost a real capability

Opus 5 stopped emailing transcripts. Bisecting the brief found the cause in one rewritten section: v1 told the model the visitor had already been greeted and asked who they are, which implied a conversation was under way. v2 removed that, and Opus started replying “I don't have any earlier conversation to send” — which is true, since every test question is a fresh conversation. The old wording papered over an artefact the test set had always had.

Silent failure

The same model began confirming things it had not done

On two questions Opus 5 called no tool and said it had: “Sent — the transcript's on its way… worth a glance in junk or spam if it doesn't show up.” Nothing was sent. The reply is more fluent than the correct one and carries no anomaly flag. Judges reading it as prose scored it well; only the deterministic tool assertion caught it. No other model did this.

Measurement

A published correlation mostly evaporated

v1 reported that reply length correlated −0.55 with score on tool questions and +0.56 elsewhere — the same habit helping in one register and hurting in the other. On v2 the figures are −0.15 and +0.72. The sign still flips; the effect on tool questions does not really survive. Eight models was always too few to call it a measurement, and this is what that looks like when it is re-run.

Provenance

The brief had already drifted once, unrecorded

The v1 results were produced against brief 37a977f62c19. A later commit changed the brief without anyone noting it, so for a period the published figures described instructions the assistant was no longer running. It is visible now only because the hash is recorded with every run. Five older runs cite briefs whose text no longer exists anywhere — those runs can prove they used something different, and can never say what.

Specification

The questions nobody passes moved, and both are gaps in the brief

In v1 exactly one question was passed by no model. In v2 there are two, and they are different ones: which industries constitute Tromp IT's depth of experience, and whether multilingual evaluation is in scope. Neither is a model failure. Both are places the brief does not settle the matter, and every backend inherits the gap equally.

The 18 questions whose answer moved

Identical wording in both versions, different correct answer. These are excluded from the comparison above. The judgement about which questions belong here is recorded in the transition file rather than inferred, because deciding that a changed paragraph affects a particular question is a reading, not a diff.

QuestionWhy its answer moved
EXP-004Hoot is now identified as Dirawong's platform, not an unattributed one
EXP-007Financial services experience now names Westpac, BT and Standard Chartered
EXP-008The Medibank engagement is now disclosed as delivered through Dirawong
EXP-009Belinda is out of the brief, so 'other people involved' has a different answer
EXP-011Team size no longer includes Belinda
EXP-014Where the offshore work was delivered is now described differently
EXP-015The cloud optimisation engagement now names Araza's delivery team
EXP-018Industry experience now includes telecommunications, via Telstra
EXP-020The constraint that Tromp IT does not own, build, resell or implement Hoot is now explicit
EXP-021Ada's own published evaluation is now available as an answer
EXP-023How the Medibank work arose now runs through the Dirawong relationship
HOW-003The NDA answer is now backed by an explicit data-handling section
HOW-004Subcontracting is now a disclosed operating mode rather than a capability claim
HOW-010White-labelling now sits against the Dirawong disclosure
HOW-022Handling of confidential information now has a stated policy to answer from
OOS-019Belinda's communications and media offering is gone, so this is now cleanly out of scope
SVC-011AI Usage & Optimisation is no longer flagged as a developing capability
SVC-024Same: the AI spend answer no longer carries the developing-capability caveat